Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global health threat that compromises the effectiveness of current antimicrobial therapies. This review outlines key microbiological mechanisms of resistance, including enzymatic degradation of antibiotics, efflux pump activity, and genetic mutations that enhance bacterial survival. These adaptations contribute to treatment failures and increase patient mortality and healthcare costs. Clinically, AMR limits therapeutic options, prolongs hospital stays, and complicates infections. Environmentally, the spread of resistant bacteria through wastewater, agriculture, and pharmaceutical waste plays a significant role in sustaining resistance in natural ecosystems. A thorough understanding of these mechanisms is essential for developing strategies to monitor, prevent, and manage AMR. Addressing this crisis requires global cooperation, surveillance, and investment in alternative therapies and responsible antibiotic use.