<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.2 20190208//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.2/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">IJMABHR</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>International Journal of Medical and All Body Health Research</journal-title><abbrev-journal-title>IJMABHR</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2582-8940</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Anfo Publication House</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">399</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.54660/IJMBHR.2025.6.4.11-17</article-id>
<title-group><article-title>Indoor Air Microbiome in Crowded Public Spaces: A Study of Classrooms and Public Transport Hubs in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria</article-title></title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Diala</surname><given-names>Chinaza Gloria</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Okenwa</surname><given-names>Chisom Rejoice</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Hammed</surname><given-names>Shittu Umar</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ibishagba</surname><given-names>Similoluwa Mercy</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Uduebholo</surname><given-names>Victory Jesuolueminosen</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Ohaekwe</surname><given-names>Conlethann Chiemerie</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Binuyo</surname><given-names>Olanrewaju Ahmed</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff1"><label>1</label>Department of Microbiology, Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff2"><label>2</label>Department of Community Health and Primary Health Care, MBBS, Lagos State University College of Medicine, Lagos, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff3"><label>3</label>Bayero University Kano, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff4"><label>4</label>Department of Microbiology, University of Ilorin, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff5"><label>5</label>Research Assistant, Covenant University Bioinformatics Research Lab, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff6"><label>6</label>Department of Microbiology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria</aff>
<aff id="aff7"><label>7</label>Department of Animal Science, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub"><day>06</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></pub-date>
<volume>6</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>11</fpage>
<lpage>17</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>12</day><month>08</month><year>2025</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>13</day><month>09</month><year>2025</year></date>
</history>
<permissions><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/?utm"><license-p>CC BY-NC-SA 4.0</license-p></license></permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://www.allmedicaljournal.com/article/399/indoor-air-microbiome-in-crowded-public-spaces-a-study-of-classrooms-and-public-transport-hubs-in"/>
<self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="https://www.allmedicaljournal.com/article/399/download"/>
<abstract><p>Indoor air comprises a mixture of many microorganisms, like bacteria, fungi and viruses, and this impacts human health unknowingly to them. This study focused on two crowded environments in Owerri, Imo State: school classrooms and public transport hub. Our aim was to collect and study airborne microorganisms, and the amount that were present in these environments. To test the microbial aspect of this prediction, we exposed Nutrient Agar and Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates to the indoor air. Microbes were collected at different times of the day, and factors such as crowd density, ventilation and cleaning schedule affect what we found. 
Our result showed that classrooms with open windows had a higher presence of environmental bacteria such as, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, ranging from 996 – 6889 Cfu/m3 and fungi like Mucor, Aspergillus and Penicillium ranging from 1448 – 3422 Cfu/m3. On the other hand, human-associated bacteria such as Staphylococcus and Cutibacterium found on human skin and respiratory droplets, were isolated from the sample from crowded public buses with a range of 897 – 3868 Cfu/m3. 
Microbes found in indoor air appeared to be largely affected by ventilation, though regular cleaning seemed to reduce surface contamination. Spaces with good airflow had more varied, balanced microbial communities, while poorly ventilated spaces showed higher levels of potentially opportunistic microbes.
This study showed that proper ventilation, and reduced overcrowding makes indoor environments healthy. Proper understanding of these differences will help in making good decisions when building and maintaining public spaces, with clear implications for indoor public health management.
 </p></abstract>
<kwd-group kwd-group-type="author"><kwd>Airborne Microorganisms</kwd><kwd>Indoor Air</kwd><kwd>Ventilation</kwd><kwd>Crowd Density</kwd><kwd>Public Transport Hub</kwd><kwd>Classrooms</kwd><kwd>Public Health</kwd></kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<back><ref-list><title>References</title>
<ref id="R1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation>Hospodsky D, Qian J, Nazaroff WW, Yamamoto N, Bibby K, Rismani-Yazdi H, Peccia J. Human occupancy as a source of indoor airborne bacteria. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(4):e34867. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034867</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R2"><label>2</label><mixed-citation>Stanley HO, Bamidele IF. Microbial assessment of indoor air quality of selected institutions in Rivers State, Nigeria. Int J Pathogen Res. 2022;10(2):22-28. doi:10.9734/ijpr/2022/v10i230244</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R3"><label>3</label><mixed-citation>Al-Shaarani S, Pecoraro L. A review of pathogenic airborne fungi and bacteria in indoor environments and their health implications. Front Microbiol. 2024;15:1428415. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2024.1428415</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R4"><label>4</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization. The world health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002. Available from: http://www.who.int/publication/i/item/9241562072</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R5"><label>5</label><mixed-citation>Zampolli J, De Giani A, Rossi M, Finazzi M, Di Gennaro P. Who inhabits the built environment? A microbiological point of view on the principal bacteria colonizing our urban areas. Front Microbiol. 2024;15:1380953. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2024.1380953</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R6"><label>6</label><mixed-citation>Leung MH, Wilkins D, Lee PK. Insights into the pan-microbiome: skin microbial communities of Chinese individuals differ from other racial groups. Sci Rep. 2015;5:11845. doi:10.1038/srep11845</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R7"><label>7</label><mixed-citation>Firatoglu ZA. The effect of natural ventilation on airborne transmission of the COVID-19 virus spread by sneezing in the classroom. Sci Total Environ. 2023;896:165113. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165113</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R8"><label>8</label><mixed-citation>Korany HZ, Almhafdy A, AlSaleem SS, Cao S-J. Numerical modelling of ventilation strategies for mitigating cough particles transmission and infection risk in hospital isolation rooms. Indoor Built Environ. 2024;33(5). doi:10.1177/1420326X241226467</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R9"><label>9</label><mixed-citation>Matthews K, Cavagnaro T, Weinstein P, Stanhope J. Health by design: optimising our urban environmental microbiomes for human health. Environ Res. 2024. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.119226</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R10"><label>10</label><mixed-citation>Kembel SW, Meadow JF, O’Connor TK, Mhuireach G, Northcutt D, Kline J, Green JL. Architectural design influences the diversity and structure of the built environment microbiome. ISME J. 2014;8(7):1469-1479. doi:10.1038/ismej.2014.210</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R11"><label>11</label><mixed-citation>Kim D, Yoon H, Lee J. Assessment of airborne bacteria in the indoor of public-use facilities concentrated on influencing factors and opportunistic pathogenic bacteria. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2024;17(3):1540. doi:10.1007/s11869-024-01540-3</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R12"><label>12</label><mixed-citation>Adams RI, Miletto M, Taylor JW, Bruns TD. The diversity and distribution of fungi on residential surfaces. PLoS ONE . 2013;8(11):e78866. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078866</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R13"><label>13</label><mixed-citation>Kalogerakis N, Paschali D, Lekaditis V, Pantidou A, Eleftheriadis K, Lazaridis M. Indoor air quality-bioaerosol measurements in domestic and office premises. J Aerosol Sci. 2005;36(5):751-761. doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2005.02.004</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R14"><label>14</label><mixed-citation>Cox J, Mbareche H, Lindsley WG, Duchaine C. Field sampling of indoor bioaerosols. Aerosol Sci Technol. 2019;54(5):572-584. doi:10.1080/02786826.2019.1688759</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R15"><label>15</label><mixed-citation>Upula SA, Oka IA, Ije UE. Microbiological assessment of indoor air quality in selected patient wards at a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. Ann Res Rev Biol. 2023;38(6):19-29. doi:10.9734/arrb/2023/v38i630589</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R16"><label>16</label><mixed-citation>Jain R, Chakraborty S. Quantifying indoor fungal aerosol levels in slums: implications for public health. Discov Public Health. 2025;22:295. International Journal of Medical and All Body Health Research www.allmedicaljournal.com doi:10.1186/s12982-025-00658-8</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R17"><label>17</label><mixed-citation>Hampton-Marcell JT, Ghosh A, Gukeh MJ, Megaridis CM, et al. A new approach of microbiome monitoring in the built environment: feasibility analysis of condensation capture. Microbiome. 2023;11:129. doi:10.1186/s40168-023-01555-5</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R18"><label>18</label><mixed-citation>Bergey DH, Holt JG, editors. Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology. 9th ed. Baltimore: The Williams &amp; Wilkins Company; 1994.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R19"><label>19</label><mixed-citation>Cheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511543470</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R20"><label>20</label><mixed-citation>Tripathi N, Zubair M, Sapra A. Gram staining. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562156/</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R21"><label>21</label><mixed-citation>Leung MH, Tang X, Lee PK. Indoor microbiome and airborne pathogens. In: Moo-Young M, editor. Comprehensive biotechnology. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2019. p. 96 -106. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64046-8.00477-8</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R22"><label>22</label><mixed-citation>Yang X, Ou C, Yang H, Liu L, Song T, Kang M, Lin H, Hang J. Transmission of pathogen-laden expiratory droplets in a coach bus. J Hazar d Mater. 2020;397:122609. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122609</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R23"><label>23</label><mixed-citation>Troko J, Myles P, Gibson J, et al. Is public transport a risk factor for acute respiratory infection? BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:16. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-11-16</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R24"><label>24</label><mixed-citation>Zhang Z, Han T, Yoo KH, Capecelatro J, Boehman AL, Maki K. Disease transmission through expiratory aerosols on an urban bus. Phys Fluids. 2021;33(1):015116. doi:10.1063/5.0037452</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R25"><label>25</label><mixed-citation>Luo Q, Pan J, Hang J, Ma Q, Ou C, Luo Z, Zeng L. Effect of natural ventilation on aerosol transmission and infection risk in a minibus. Phys Fluids. 2024;36(11):115116. doi:10.1063/5.0236268</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R26"><label>26</label><mixed-citation>Mohammed MO. Surface microbial contamination and air quality before and after regular cleaning procedures. Atmosphere. 2023;14(2):352. doi:10.3390/atmos14020352</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="R27"><label>27</label><mixed-citation>Jendrossek SN, Jurk LA, Remmers K, Cetin YE, Sunder W, Kriegel M, Gastmeier P. The influence of ventilation measures on the airborne risk of infection in schools: a scoping review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20(4):3746. doi:10.3390/ijerph20043746</mixed-citation></ref>
</ref-list></back>
</article>